Research - Trauma Continuum at Hill Center

The Dissociative Disorders and Trauma Research Program

“Sometimes to be seen is the same thing as being saved”

~Mary Rakow

The Dissociative Disorders and Trauma Research Program

Understanding the Impact of Trauma Through Research

Our lab’s core purpose is to understand the adaptability of the human mind, brain, and body, so that we can help those impacted by childhood abuse.

Mission

Founded in 2013 by Dr. Milissa Kaufman and now jointly directed by Dr. Kaufman and Dr. Lauren Lebois, our lab focuses on individuals who have experienced childhood trauma. Dissociative symptoms, common in trauma spectrum disorder like posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and dissociative identity disorder (DID), are a central focus of our research. These symptoms may can manifest as memory gaps, feelings of detachment from one’s body, emotions, or environment, confusion over one’s identity, and shifts in one’s identity.

We aim to identify and understand, in a clinically nuanced manner, the phenomenology, brain mechanisms, cognition, physiology, and genetics contributing to PTSD and DID. We seek to explore how these factors relate to both dysfunction and resilience in these conditions.

Using cutting edge statistical, behavioral, and imaging techniques, we document people’s experiences of trauma and its consequences. Our research aims to understand the diverse ways people adapt after trauma and to identify those most likely to benefit from specific treatments. Ultimately, we hope to reduce the stigma surrounding these experiences and enhance the quality of assessment and treatment that people receive.

Find out more about our leading team of scientists, staff, and trainees.

“Participating in the study was the first time I felt like anything good came out of my terrible experiences.”

— Research Participant

Central Values

Guiding principles by which we navigate. These are values we would have regardless of the job, and even if they were a competitive disadvantage.

Core Research Areas of our Laboratory

The Search for Biological Markers and Mechanisms of Trauma-related Dissociation

Exposure to traumatic stress is consistently and strongly associated with dissociative symptoms for a subset of the population. Phenomenologically, dissociation encompasses a range of distinct, yet clinically interrelated symptoms: depersonalization, derealization, amnesia, numbing, intrusive flashbacks, agency/ownership loss over thoughts, emotions, and bodily experiences, and identity disturbances. These symptoms, individually or in various combinations, serve as diagnostic criteria across multiple psychiatric disorders including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and dissociative identity disorder (DID). However, the biological markers and mechanisms of dissociation remain largely unknown. Understanding these mechanisms could yield tractable new points of intervention for patients – for example, novel neurobiological targets to engage in future psychotherapeutic, pharmacological, neurofeedback or neuromodulatory interventions.

Our research suggests that trauma-related dissociation is associated with several distinct neurobiological and psychophysiological mechanisms, varying based on the type of dissociation examined (e.g., Lebois et al., 2021, American Journal of Psychiatry; Lebois et al., 2022, American Journal of Psychiatry; Lebois et al., 2022, Neuropsychopharmacology; Seligowski et al., 2019, Depression & Anxiety). We were also the first to show that self-reported dissociative symptoms could be accurately predicted solely based on patterns of brain functional connectivity (Lebois et al., 2021, American Journal of Psychiatry). Furthermore, we found that dissociative symptoms and their neurobiological correlates predicted more severe future posttraumatic stress symptoms in a large-scale, prospective longitudinal study (Lebois et al., 2022, American Journal of Psychiatry).

This body of work represents a significant advancement in our understanding of dissociation, its neural underpinnings, and its physical manifestations. By integrating these insights, we have increased awareness of the need to assess for dissociative symptoms and intervene early in clinical and medical settings. This research not only emphasizes the importance of early intervention but also paves the way for developing more targeted treatment strategies that leverage our neurobiological understanding of trauma-related dissociation.

Empirical Research on Dissociative Identity Disorder

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) has long been one of the most stigmatized psychiatric disorders in the world. Paradoxically, DID is both an ingenious adaptive response to inescapable childhood maltreatment, and it is associated with significant financial, personal and societal costs. Research supports a powerful relationship between chronic, early childhood abuse and the development of DID. The diagnosis is well-validated psychometrically and prevalence is higher than generally appreciated – with a 1.1% lifetime prevalence – more prevalent than schizophrenia. Despite this, even among mental health clinicians and researchers, beliefs about DID often are not based on the scientific literature and the condition remains understudied. For instance, skepticism, misunderstanding, and lack of professional education about DID all contribute to striking rates of underdiagnosis and misdiagnoses. Consequently, individuals with DID typically wait an average of 6-12 years to receive appropriate treatment.

Our research has contributed to the growing body of empirical studies on DID. We have identified distinct neurobiological correlates associated with the disorder (Lebois et al., 2021, American Journal of Psychiatry; Lebois et al., 2022, Neuropsychopharmacology). Additionally, we have documented a range of distorted bodily perceptions in individuals with DID (Merker et al., 2021, Journal of Psychiatric Research) and high levels of anxiety sensitivity related to concern over losing control of their mind (Pan et al., 2022, Journal of Psychiatric Research). Furthermore, we have observed altered performance on emotional and self-face perception tasks in DID (Lebois et al., 2020, Journal of Psychiatric Research; Lebois et al., 2019, Journal of Trauma & Dissociation).

This research represents substantial progress in our understanding of DID. By identifying both self-report and objective behavioral task-based markers of dissociation, we have begun to lay the groundwork for more accurate assessments and more effective treatment strategies. These markers and others we are studying offer the potential to not only confirm the presence of dissociation but also to monitor clinically meaningful indicators of recovery or relapse over time. Our research stands as a testament to the critical importance of rigorous, evidence-based investigation in transforming the diagnosis, treatment, and ultimately the lives of those affected by DID.

Enhancing Early Identification and Intervention for trauma-related Dysfunction

Early identification of trauma-related dysfunction is critical for successful interventions. Neurophenotypes, or brain-based markers, of PTSD can serve as objective indicators of PTSD subgroups to propel the development of predictive models for PTSD susceptibility. However, progress in this area has been limited due to the challenges associated with collecting large-scale, prospective, longitudinal data. Our team has contributed to the AURORA Study the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (PGC) for PTSD, and the Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics Through Meta Analysis (ENIGMA) PTSD working group aiming to identify neurophenotypes of PTSD through large-scale prospective and meta/mega-analyses. So far, we have found smaller hippocampal volume, altered white matter microstructure organization, altered intrinsic functional connectivity after trauma, sex/ancestry-specific genetic risk loci for PTSD, and distinct functional brain-based biotypes after trauma. Drs. Kaufman and Lebois also chair the newly established international Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics Through Meta Analysis (ENIGMA) dissociation working group, and hope to bring together neuroimaging genetic dissociation researchers worldwide. This work has significantly enhanced our mechanistic understanding of posttraumatic sequelae using well-powered samples.

Publications

PDF versions are provided for personal, noncommercial uses. Copyright holders are indicated in each paper. These files are not to be reposted or circulated without permission.

2024

Purcell JB, Brand B, Browne HA, Chefetz RA, Shanahan M, Bair ZA, Baranowski KA, Davis V, Mangones P, Modell RL, Palermo CA, Robertson EC, Robinson MA, Ward L, Winternitz S, Kaufman ML, Lebois LAM. Treatment of dissociative identity disorder: leveraging neurobiology to optimize success. Expert Rev Neurother. 2024 Mar;24(3):273-289. doi: 10.1080/14737175.2024.2316153. Epub 2024 Feb 15. Review. PMID: 38357897; PMCID: PMC10950423. *Received International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation David Caul Award

Robinson MA, Purcell JB, Ward L, Winternitz S, Kaufman ML, Baranowski KA, Lebois LAM. Advancing Research on and Treatment of Dissociative Identity Disorder With People With Lived Experience. Am J Psychother. 2024 May 7;:appipsychotherapy20230024. doi: 10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.20230024. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 38711402.

Webb EK, Stevens JS, Ely TD, Lebois LAM, van Rooij SJH, Bruce SE, House SL, Beaudoin FL, An X, Neylan TC, Clifford GD, Linnstaedt SD, Germine LT, Bollen KA, Rauch SL, Haran JP, Storrow AB, Lewandowski C, Musey PI Jr, Hendry PL, Sheikh S, Jones CW, Punches BE, Swor RA, Murty VP, Hudak LA, Pascual JL, Seamon MJ, Datner EM, Pearson C, Peak DA, Domeier RM, Rathlev NK, O’Neil BJ, Sergot P, Sanchez LD, Joormann J, Pizzagalli DA, Harte SE, Kessler RC, Koenen KC, Ressler KJ, McLean SA, Harnett NG. Neighborhood Resources Associated With Psychological Trajectories and Neural Reactivity to Reward After Trauma. JAMA Psychiatry. 2024 Jul 31:e242148. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.2148. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 39083325; PMCID: PMC11292566.

Seligowski AV, Harnett NG, Ellis RA, Grasser LR, Hanif M, Wiltshire C, Ely TD, Lebois LAM, van Rooij SJH, House SL, Beaudoin FL, An X, Neylan TC, Clifford GD, Linnstaedt SD, Germine LT, Bollen KA, Rauch SL, Haran JP, Storrow AB, Lewandowski C, Musey PI Jr, Hendry PL, Sheikh S, Jones CW, Punches BE, Swor RA, Hudak LA, Pascual JL, Seamon MJ, Harris E, Pearson C, Peak DA, Merchant RC, Domeier RM, Rathlev NK, O’Neil BJ, Sergot P, Sanchez LD, Bruce SE, Harte SE, Koenen KC, Kessler RC, McLean SA, Ressler KJ, Stevens JS, Jovanovic T. Probing the neurocardiac circuit in trauma and posttraumatic stress. Journal of Psychiatric Research. 2024 Jun 7;176:173-181. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.06.009. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 38875773.

Nievergelt CM, Maihofer AX, Atkinson EG, …Ressler KJ, Koenen KC. Genome-wide association analyses identify 95 risk loci and provide insights into the neurobiology of post-traumatic stress disorder. Nat Genet. 2024 May;56(5):792-808. doi: 10.1038/s41588-024-01707-9. Epub 2024 Apr 18. PubMed PMID: 38637617.

2023

Webb EK, Ely TD, Rowland GE, Lebois LAM, van Rooij SJ, Bruce SE, Jovanovic T, House SL, Beaudoin FL, An X, Neylan TC et al. Neighborhood Disadvantage and Neural Correlates of Threat and Reward Processing in Survivors of Recent Trauma. JAMA Network Open. 2023 Sep 5;6(9):e2334483-.

Rowland G, Roeckner A, Ely TD, Lebois LAM, … Harnett NG. Prior sexual trauma exposure impacts posttraumatic dysfunction and neural circuitry following a recent traumatic event in the AURORA study. Biological Psychiatry: Global Open Science. 2023 Feb 16

Wong SA, Lebois LAM, Ely TD, van Rooij SJH, …Harnett NG. Internal capsule microstructure mediates the relationship between childhood maltreatment and PTSD following adulthood trauma exposure. Molecular Psychiatry. 2023 Mar 17:1-10.

Harnett NG, Fani N, Carter S, Sanchez LD, Rowland GE, Davie WM, Guzman C, Lebois LAM, … Stevens JS, Ressler KJ. Structural inequities contribute to racial/ethnic differences in neurophysiological tone, but not threat reactivity, after trauma exposure. Molecular Psychiatry. 2023 Feb 1:1-10.

Dumornay NM, Lebois LA, Ressler KJ, Harnett NG. Racial disparities in adversity during childhood and the false appearance of race-related differences in brain structure. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2023 Feb 1;180(2):127-38.

2022

Lebois, L.A., Kumar, P., Palermo, C.A., Lambros, A.M., O’Connor, L., Wolff, J.D., Baker, J.T., Gruber, S.A., Lewis-Schroeder, N., Ressler, K.J. Robinson, M.A., Winternitz S, Nickerson L, & Kaufman ML. Deconstructing dissociation: a triple network model of trauma-related dissociation and its subtypes. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2022 Dec; 47(13):2261-70.

Maihofer AX, Engchuan W, Huguet G, et al. Rare copy number variation in posttraumatic stress disorder. Molecular psychiatry. 2022 Dec;27(12):5062-9.

Lebois LAM, Kaplan CS, Palermo CA, Pan X, Kaufman ML. A Grounded Theory of Dissociative Identity Disorder: placing DID in mind, brain, and body. In: Dorahy M, Gold S, editors. Dissociation and the Dissociative Disorders: Past, Present, Future. 2022 (pp. 392-408). Routledge.

Pan X, Palermo CA, Kaplan CS, Harnett N, Winternitz SR, Kaufman ML, Lebois LAM. Anxiety sensitivity predicts depression severity in individuals with dissociative identity disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2022 Nov 1;155:263-8.

Harnett NG, Finegold KE, Lebois LA, van Rooij SJ, Ely TD, ….Stevens JS. Structural covariance of the ventral visual stream predicts posttraumatic intrusion and nightmare symptoms: a multivariate data fusion analysis. Translational Psychiatry. 2022 Aug 8;12(1):1-3.

Sun D, Rakesh G, Haswell CC, Logue M, Baird CL, …Morey R. A Comparison of Methods to Harmonize Cortical Thickness Measurements Across Scanners and Sites. NeuroImage. 2022 Jul 30:119509.

Tanriverdi B, Gregory DF, Olino TM, Ely TD, Harnett NG, van Rooij SJ, Lebois LAM, … Murty V.. Hippocampal Threat Reactivity Interacts with Physiological Arousal to Predict PTSD Symptoms. Journal of Neuroscience. 2022 Jul 25.

Lebois LAM, Harnett, van Rooij, Ely, Jovanovic, …, Ressler. Persistent Dissociation and its Neural Correlates in Predicting Outcomes after Trauma Exposure. Am J Psychiatry. 2022 Jun 22; doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.21090911

Commentary: Shin LM. Looking through a fog: what persistent derealization can teach us about PTSD. Am J Psychiatry. 2022 Sep 1;179(9):599-600.
Lebois, L. A., & Ressler, K. (2023). Acute stress, traumatic brain injury, and dissociation: response to Simeon. American journal of psychiatry, 180(4), 318-319.

Sun, Rakesh, Clarke-Rubright, Haswell, Logue, …, Morey. Remodeling of the Cortical Structural Connectome in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Results from the ENIGMA-PGC PTSD Consortium. Bio Psychiatry CNNI. 2022 Mar 15

Lebois LAM, Ross DA, Kaufman ML. “I Am Not I”: the neuroscience of dissociative identity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2022;91:e11-e13

Clausen, Fercho, Monsour, Disner, Salminen, …, & Morey. Assessment of brain age in posttraumatic stress disorder: Findings from the ENIGMA PTSD and brain age working groups. Brain and Behavior. 2022 Jan;12(1):e2413

Harnett NG, Dumornay NM, Delity M, Sanchez LD, Mohiuddin K, Musey PI Jr., Seamon MJ, McLean SA, Kessler RC, Koenen KC, Beaudoin FL, Lebois LAM, … & Ressler KJ. Prior differences in previous trauma exposure primarily drive the observed racial/ethnic differences in posttrauma depression and anxiety following a recent trauma. Psychological Medicine. 2022 Jan 31:1-0

Maihofer, A. X., Choi, K. W., Coleman, J. R., Daskalakis, N. P., Denckla, C. A., Ketema, E., … & Ursano, R. J. Enhancing discovery of genetic variants for PTSD through integration of quantitative phenotypes and trauma exposure information. Biological Psychiatry. 2022 Jan; doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.09.020

2021

Stevens JS, Harnett NG, Lebois LAM, van Rooij SJH, … & Ressler KJ. Brain-based biotypes of psychiatric vulnerability in the acute aftermath of trauma. Am J Psychiatry. 2021 ;178:1037-1049.

Harnett NG & Lebois LAM. Leveraging resting-state neurophenotypes to identify susceptibility to and heterogeneity of posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2021 Aug 13; Epub ahead of print

Steuber ER, Seligowski AV, Roeckner AR, Reda MH, Lebois LAM et al. Thalamic volume and fear extinction interact to predict acute posttraumatic stress severity. J Psychiatr Res. 2021 July; 325-332.

Merker JB, Hill SB, Wolff JD, Winternitz SR, Ressler KJ, *Kaufman ML, *Lebois LAM. Posttraumatic Cognitions Predict Distorted Body Perceptions in Women with Dissociative Identity Disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2021 Feb 1;134:166-72.

Harnett NG, van Rooij SJH, Ely TD, Lebois LAM et al. Prognostic neuroimaging biomarkers of trauma-related psychopathology: Resting state fMRI shortly after trauma predicts future PTSD and depression symptoms in the AURORA study. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2021 Jan 21:1-9.

2020

Wang, Xie, Chen, Cotton, Salminen et al. Cortical volume abnormalities in posttraumatic stress disorder: An ENIGMA-Psychiatric Genomics Consortium PTSD Workgroup mega-analysis. Mol Psychiatry. 2020 Dec 7:1-3.

Kessler RC, Ressler KJ, House SL, Beaudoin FL, An X et al. Socio-demographic and trauma-related predictors of PTSD within eight weeks of a motor vehicle collision in the AURORA study. Mol Psychiatry. 2020 Oct 19:1-14.

*Lebois LAM, *Li M, *Baker JT, Wolff JD, Wang D, Lambros A, Grinspoon E, Winternitz S, Ren J, Gonenc A, Gruber S, Ressler KJ, *Liu H, *Kaufman ML. Large-scale Brain Network Architecture Changes Associated with Trauma-related Dissociation. Am J Psychiatry. 2020 Sept.

Comment: Menon V. Dissociation by Network Integration. Am J Psychiatry. 2021 Feb 01;178(2):110-112. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20121728

King C, Wolff JD, Hill SB, Bigony CE, Winternitz S, Ressler KJ, *Kaufman ML, *Lebois LAM. Childhood Maltreatment type and severity predict depersonalization and derealization in treatment-seeking women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113301.

Lebois LAM, Wilson-Mendenhall CD, Simmons WK, Barrett LF, & Barsalou LW (2020). Learning situated emotions. Neuropsychologia, 145, 106637. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.01.008.

Lebois LAM, Palermo CA, Scheuer LS, Lebois EP, Winternitz SR, Germine L, & Kaufman ML (2020). Higher integration scores are associated with facial emotion perception differences in dissociative identity disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 123, 164-170. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.02.007

Shinn AK, Wolff JD, Hwang M, Lebois LAM, Robinson MA, Winternitz SR, Ongur D, Ressler KJ, & Kaufman ML. Assessing voice hearing in trauma spectrum disorders: a comparison of two measures and a review of the literature. Frontiers in Psychiatry. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.01011.

Hill SB, Wolff JD, Bigony CE, Winternitz S, Ressler KJ, *Kaufman ML, *Lebois LAM. Dissociative Subtype of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Women in Partial and Residential Levels of Psychiatric Care. J Trauma & Dissociation. doi: 10.1080/15299732.2019.1678214.

Dalvie S, Maihofer AX, Coleman JR, Bradley B et al. Genomic influences on self-reported childhood maltreatment. Transl Psychiatry. 2020 Jan 27;10(1):1-12. doi: 10.1038/s41398-020-0706-0

McLean, Ressler, Koenen, Neylan, Germine et al. (2020). The AURORA Study: A Longitudinal, Multimodal Library of Brain Biology and Function after Traumatic Stress Exposure. Mol Psychiatry, 25, 283-296.

2019

Dennis, Disner, Fani, Salminen, Logue et al. Altered White Matter Microstructural Organization in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder across 3,049 Adults: Results from the PGC-ENIGMA PTSD Consortium. Mol Psychiatry. Epub 2019 Dec 19. doi: 10.1038/s41380-019-0631-x

Nievergelt, Maihofer, Klengel, Atkinson, Chen et al. (2019). International meta-analysis of PTSD genome-wide association studies identifies sex- and ancestry-specific genetic risk loci. Nature Communications, 10(1), 1-16.

Joyce VW, King CD, Nash CC, Lebois LAM, Ressler KJ, Buonopane RJ (2019). Predicting Psychiatric Rehospitalization in Adolescents. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 46(6), 807-820.

Kieran K (2019). Three Recent Cases of Likely Methadone Cross-Reactivity With Vortioxetine. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 25(3), 1.

Lebois LAM, Seligowski AV, Wolff JD, Hill SB, & Ressler KJ (2019). Augmentation of Extinction and Inhibitory Learning in Anxiety and Trauma-Related Disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 15, 257-284.

Seligowski AV, Lebois LAM, Hill SB, Kahhale I, Wolff JD, Jovanovic T, Winternitz S, Kaufman ML, & Ressler KJ (2019). Autonomic responses to fear conditioning among women with PTSD and dissociation. Depression and anxiety, 36(7), 625-634

Lebois LAM, Wolff JD, Hill SB, Bigony CE, Winternitz S, Ressler KJ, & Kaufman ML (2019). Preliminary Evidence of a Missing Self Bias in Face Perception for Individuals with Dissociative Identity Disorder. J Trauma & Dissociation, 20(2), 140-164.

2018

*Fenster R, *Lebois LAM, Ressler KJ, Suh J (2018) Brain Circuit Dysfunction in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: from Mouse to Man. Nature reviews. Neuroscience, 19(9), 535-551.

Lewis-Schroeder NF, Kieran K, Murphy BL, Wolff JD, Robinson MA, & Kaufman ML (2018). Conceptualization, assessment, and treatment of traumatic stress in first responders: a review of critical issues. Harvard review of psychiatry, 26(4), 216-227.

Logue, van Rooij, Dennis, Davis et al. (2018). Smaller Hippocampal Volume in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Multisite ENIGMA-PGC Study: Subcortical Volumetry Results From Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Consortia. Biological psychiatry, 83(3), 244-253.

2016

Lebois LAM, Wolff JD, & Ressler KJ (2016). Neuroimaging genetic approaches to posttraumatic stress disorder. Experimental neurology, 284, 141-152.

Lebois LAM, Ressler KJ. Mechanisms of PACAP in PTSD and stress-related disorders in humans. In: Reglodi D, Tamas A, editors. Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide—PACAP. Current Topics in Neurotoxicity. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2016. pp. 767-780.

Lebois LAM, Hertzog C, Slavich GM, Barrett LF, & Barsalou LW (2016). Establishing the situated features associated with perceived stress. Acta Psychologica, 169, 119-132. Supplemental Materials.

Tincher MM, Lebois LAM, & Barsalou LW (2016). Mindful attention reduces linguistic intergroup bias. Mindfulness, 7, 349-360. Supplemental Materials.

2015

McCarthy-Jones, S, Castro Romero M, McCarthy-Jones R, Dillon J, Cooper-Rompato C, Kieran K, Kaufman ML, & Blackman L (2015). Hearing the Unheard: an interdisciplinary, mixed methodology study of women’s experiences of hearing voices (auditory verbal hallucinations). Frontiers in psychiatry, 6, 181.

Lebois LAM, Papies EK, Gopinath K, Cabanban R, Quigley KS, Krishnamurthy V, Barrett LF, & Barsalou LW (2015). A shift in perspective: Decentering through mindful attention to imagined stressful events. Neuropsychologia, 75, 505-524. Supplemental Materials.

Earlier

Kimble M, & Kaufman ML (2004). Clinical correlates of neurological change in posttraumatic stress disorder: an overview of critical systems. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 27(1), 49-65.

Kimble M, Ruddy K, Deldin P, & Kaufman ML (2004). A CNV-distraction paradigm in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences, 16(1), 102-108.

Reich DB, Winternitz S, Hennen J, Watts T, & Stanculescu C (2004). A preliminary study of risperidone in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood abuse in women. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 65(12), 1601-1606.

Kimble MO, Kaufman ML, Leonard LL, Nestor PG, Riggs DS, Kaloupek DG, & Bachrach P (2002). Sentence completion test in combat veterans with and without PTSD: preliminary findings. Psychiatry Research, 113(3), 303-307.

Kaufman ML, Kimble MO, Kaloupek DG, McTeague LM, Bachrach P, Forti AM, & Keane TM (2002). Peritraumatic dissociation and physiological response to trauma-relevant stimuli in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of nervous and mental disease, 190(3), 167-174.

Keane TM, Kaufman ML, & Kimble MO (2001). Peritraumatic dissociative symptoms, ASD, and the development of PTSD: Causation, correlation, or epiphenomenon. Controversies in psychiatry: Dissociative states, 21-43.

Kimble M, Kaloupek D, Kaufman ML, & Deldin P (2000). Stimulus novelty differentially affects attentional allocation in PTSD. Biological Psychiatry, 47(10), 880-890.